Clorox Green Essay

1. To persuade its customers to buy Green Works products, Clorox is striving to change the perception of the ideal cleaning product by showing that a good cleaning product does not need harmful chemicals to be effective. Clorox states that Green Works products are all natural, yet effective as any other non-natural product. Clorox is changing the consumers’ belief that all natural cleaning products are bad by emphasizing that its natural product line is effective and safe. 2. The Clorox Green Works product line appeals to the â€Å"New Green Mainstream† segment. These people are concerned about the environment, but alter their actions and purchases only when it is convenient. The people who buy Clorox’s Green Works products are concerned about the environment, but they are also concerned about the price and how convenient it is to purchase. Clorox appeals to these people by advertising its Green Works line as a natural product that really works. Clorox also provides these products at a price competitive to those of other brands who provide â€Å"Green† products. Lastly, to cater to this segment’s preference for convenience, Clorox distributes its Green Works line through mass merchandisers rather than specialty stores so consumers can buy the product without having to go out of their way. 4. Clorox should consider engaging the negative bloggers directly. By doing this they could gain a lot of knowledge about what they can do to address the bloggers concerns as well as how they can better their brand image. Through developing these personal relationships, the bloggers are lesser likely to continue posting and blogging damaging things about the partnership. The bloggers will feel as though their personal concerns are being taken into consideration and also Clorox can allow these bloggers to be a part of the solution in making sure that Clorox is not jeopardizing the core values of an organization like Sierra Club; core values that all of the members hold in confidence. Ignoring and dealing with these concerns indirectly is most likely only going to add the negative blogging. By ignoring the bloggers, Clorox risks more people joining the bloggers and severely damaging their image when it comes to providing natural products. In other words, they would be risking the opportunity to continue capitalizing on the natural cleaning market. By dealing with the concerns indirectly, they risk adding more fuel to support the bloggers concerns. Also, Clorox could easily miss the true concern the spurred the posts to begin with which would only make matters worse. 5. The endorsements of Sierra Club, the EPA, and Better Homes and Gardens are important to Clorox and the success of Green Works because these endorsements show consumers that the Green Works products are safe. These endorsements show that Clorox is also concerned about the environment and is willing to do its part to help. Clorox is already a trustworthy brand, but with these endorsements, consumers are willing to accept the product faster than without the endorsements because the endorsements create trust. Also, because Clorox is essentially paying the Sierra Club for its endorsement, this has created some negativity and diminished the endorsement’s credibility. By having the U.S. EPA and Better Homes and Gardens endorse Clorox’s new line brings back the trust that was lost when Clorox partnered with the Sierra Club and also shows that not only the Sierra Club recommends Clorox’s products, but other prominent sources as well. 6. No, it does not affect our attitude towards Green Works. We can see why the bloggers are upset that the Sierra Club is receiving money from Clorox, but to us, the Sierra Club and Clorox are in a partnership and that sometimes means sharing profits. Clorox is helping the Sierra Club’s environmental efforts by providing monetary compensation for its endorsement. Although Clorox does produce other products that are made with unnatural products, the Sierra Club has only approved its logo on the Green Works line. Knowing that the Sierra Club is receiving money from Clorox does not affect our attitude towards Green Works because it also received endorsements from the EPA and Better Homes and Gardens, which show us that the Green Works line is a legitimate product line. The affective component of the attitude process is at work here.

Rose’s Characterization of McCarthyism

Rose has used the actions and motives of the jurors as a method of characterising and thus criticising the practise of McCarthyism. A fine example of this is the 3rd juror. A reckless and unrestrained man, he makes accusations against fellow jurors for not siding with his point of view; ‘Listen, you voted â€Å"guilty†, didn’t you? What side are you on? ’ – a direct reflection of the actions adopted by senator Joseph McCarthy in the 1950’s. The 3rd juror also wrongly accuses the 5th for changing his vote to ‘not-guilty’ without any evidence to support his conclusion. This further exemplifies the premise of ‘making unfair allegations or using unfair investigative techniques, especially to restrict dissent’. He also verbally attacks those jurors that he perceives as beneath him to further assert his own power or control as well as to discourage any views that are contrary to his own. The 10th juror is also used to reflect another aspect of McCarthyism. He seems almost afraid of those different to him and his speech regarding those born in slums is an example of the paranoia that the practise of McCarthyism can spread. It is also evident that the 3rd and 8th jurors had virtually decided the defendant’s guilt without any reference to evidence and were both very unwilling to concede that a reasonable doubt existed. It is clear that Rose has used the most unreasonable and reckless jurors to characterise McCarthyism in order to condemn its practise and to explore the dangers that similar movements pose to society. Twelve Angry Men as an interpretation of the American Dream Twelve Angry Men explores a national ethos of the United States; the notion that the opportunity for prosperity and success exists for every man regardless of social class or circumstances of birth. This set of ideals is defined as the ‘American Dream’. Rose has used the jurors of the play to demonstrate how the notion of the American Dream can influence the underpinning ideals that society operates upon. For instance, the 8th juror provides an advocate for the principle of equality – the notion that ‘all men are created equal’ regardless of ethnicity or class. This is demonstrated by his sympathy towards the defendant in regards to his difficult upbringing. The 5th juror then provides an example for the American Dream in action. He has been able to create a successful career for himself despite being born in a slum. Rose has used him to support the premise that social mobility can be achieved despite a disadvantaged upbringing through a willingness to work hard. The 10th juror is then used to represent those who attempt to undermine the values of equality that are explicitly rendered within the dream by continually distinguishing himself from ‘them’. The 3rd juror also exemplifies someone who has achieved material success (not necessarily internal fulfilment) through a willingness to work hard and strive forwards. The consumerist culture that has been facilitated by the American Dream has also been represented by Rose – in the form of the 12th juror. Attached to the 3rd and 12th jurors is the notion that the focus of the dream has shifted to material ownership rather than personal progress or contentment, that success is only defined in terms of money. It is the evident unhappiness of the 3rd juror which details that material possession certainly does not guarantee intrinsic fulfilment. The methodical criticism of seemingly solid facts by the 8th juror highlights a transition from concrete to intangible. Rose has done this to demonstrate that not everything is as certain as it first seemed and in turn this can be applied to the seemingly impermeable institution of the American Dream. The overriding prejudices of many in the jury room shows that hard work may not guarantee success and social class or race can have an impact on individuals perceptions of others. This exemplifies the pessimistic belief that the American wealth structure perpetuates long-standing racial and class inequalities embedded in American society. This is in contrast to the idealistic view that a 1950’s America presented a frontier for egalitarian societies. Thus Rose has debased the belief that obtaining wealth is necessary in achieving one’s dreams.

Evaluate the appropriateness of the operating systems elements in Essay

Evaluate the appropriateness of the operating systems elements in terms of their contributions to productivity and overall effectiveness - Essay Example The Toyota production system like any other system has its own way of carrying out its operations. It has a strategy of improving depending on the set standards. This aims at involving the participation of its staff to help eradicate unnecessary wastes. The objective of the system is make the delivery more effective by reducing time taken between when an order is issued and when delivery is made to the clients. Just like any organization or system, the Toyota Production System focuses on not only making their products of high quality but of lower cost of production, to maximize on the profits. Secondly, it is aiming at achieving workers satisfaction, fair treatment, and job security among its workers (Chiarini 2012 pg 345). The final objective is to give the company flexibility in relationship with trends in the local and global markets, to achieve maximum profit through reduction of overhead costs and realizing a sustainable prosperity. Complete elimination of all waste, unevenness in all sections of work and overburden, allows members of staff to work smoothly and efficiently. In addition, core values of the system are built on standardization that ensures safe methods of production and sustained quality of production. Toyota community is steel seeking to improve its standard processes and techniques in order to bring in maximum quality, eliminate waste, and maximize efficiency in a process known as kaizen. The process is applied in all the production elements of the company. Kaizen is a core element in the Toyota production system. Like in all large-scale production systems, Toyota requires all tasks both mechanical and human be specified and precisely standardized to ensure highest quality, improve production efficiency, and eliminate waste. In this section of production system, the members of staff follow closely these standardized works and

Insolvency Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Insolvency Law - Essay Example Contextually, in order to improve their image in front of the investors companies at times tend to adopt approaches which though considered negative in business but still they ensure better business performances. This aspect along with various other reasons like conflicts amid the management, a lack of proper communication in business, crisis in the business sector as well as improper controlling of the business activities further result in impacting the ability of business units to pay back the debt of their creditors and shareholders thereby affecting the performance and existence of the business up to a considerable extent2. This aspect in legal terms is considered as insolvency. In this particular context, the insolvency law regulates the companies who are not been able to pay their debt to the shareholders or creditors. It is directly implied to companies which are being formed under the Companies Act of 2006 in the UK. However, with the passage of time, the issue of insolvency has become more and more severe which further calls for the need of stern laws and principles3. Contextually, the Cork report will be vital to consider which has recommended certain principles to be implemented in the operations of companies that would be helpful in dealing with the issue of insolvency. This particular report will mainly highlight one of the recommended aims in paragraph 198 of the Cork report and depict its importance and need through critical analysis. As described above, the Cork report was formed with the intention to recommend certain principles that could be implemented in the operations of business units to assure a more profitable business operation further reducing the probability of insolvency of the business. The report came up with certain aims for improvement in the modern day insolvency law which in turn led to the formation of the Insolvency Act of 19864. In the report formed by Kenneth Cork, there were certain

How did Syria got impacted the Middle-East and especially Turkey Research Paper

How did Syria got impacted the Middle-East and especially Turkey - Research Paper Example The World Food Programme offers monthly food donations to about 4 million people who are victims of the civil conflict in the region (â€Å"World Food Programme† 1). Moreover, other humanitarian agencies offers clean drinking water to about 1.1 million people in Syria (â€Å"Government of Canada† 1). Notably, most of the countries in the Middle East region are downstream riparian states and have scarce water resources and hence the continued debate and conflict on water issues in this region (â€Å"The Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs† 1). Ideally, agriculture accounted for about 25 percent of gross domestic product in this region and hence the water shortage is hindering efforts to maintain economic growth in this region (Williams 1). The water conflict is equally a source of tension as many countries including Syria seek to increase its political dominance where it competes for the water resources with Turkey, Iraq, and Israel. Analysis shows that Turkey is likely to face water shortages in the near future although it presently has significant water resources (â€Å"The Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs† 2). As a result, of the crisis there have been continued debates and efforts geared towards addressing the Syrian crisis. In the meantime, many Syrians fled the violence in their country and took refuge in Turkey, Jordan, Egypt, Lebanon, and Iraq (â€Å"World Food Programme† 1). Indeed, about 2.2 million Syrians are refugees in these countries, which further strain the infrastructure, food security, and water supply in this region. Additionally, more countries including the U.S are still offering the refugees agencies a leeway to settle more refugees and conflict victims in Syria thus influencing the social and economic aspects in Syria. However, as we expect the need for humanitarian aid to increase in Syria over the next few years, there is international pressure on the Syrian president, Bashar al-Assad, to remove bar riers to the delivery of humanitarian assistance in Syria (Cumming-Bruce 1). Saudi Arabia has been opposing the Syrian government and continuously calls for action against Syrian President Assad (â€Å"BBC NEWS† 1). On the other hand, Iran has been supporting Syria and criticizes any international action on the current crisis in Syria. Nevertheless, although Iraq is less significant to Syria, it opposes any US military action in Syria and hosts a significant number of refugees from Syria. Conversely, Israel does not offer its public opinion on the Syrian crisis but warns other nations into dragging Israel into the conflict and assert its readiness to deal with the crisis if the civil war extends to Israel (â€Å"BBC NEWS† 1). Additionally, Qatar supports the proposed military action on Syria while Egypt opposes any military action without the authorization of the UN (â€Å"BBC NEWS† 1). Jordan supports limited military action in Syria upon proving the use of che mical weapons in Syria by the US Congress (â€Å"BBC NEWS† 1). Indeed, Jordan hosts refugees from Syria and therefore opposes any international intervention that would cause civilian casualties. The Jordan government advocates for a political settlement to the Syrian crisis (â€Å"BBC NEWS† 1). Nevertheless, some people believe that in 2013, Jordan facilitated the supply of weapons to rebel fighters in southern Syria (â€Å"

International business strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

International business strategy - Essay Example In October 31, 1969, the company was incorporated as Walmart stores, Inc. Over time, Walmart stores have grown globally to 8,159 retail stores in 15 different countries (Walmartstores, 2009); and the story of globalization still continues. Cost effectiveness is the core competence of Walmart. They believe to offer best quality products on lowest possible prices and enable their customers to live better by saving money (Walmartstores, 2009). If Walmart wants to enter UK, their primary objective must be to keep up their brand name high; and for this they have to keep the essence of cost effectiveness. To foray in the UK market, Walmart can take several ways. They can go for merger with another company in UK or they can forward their leap by acquiring another retail company in UK. Setting up a new company on its own in UK seems not to be a good choice for Walmart. A new set up will not have any client base, any reputation in the UK market. Moreover Walmart will not be so familiar with the business customs. So setting up a new business and survive in a competitive environment while get accustomed to its people, culture and business customs will be quite a tough way for Walmart to get into UK market. Building a company from scratch seems to be an unnecessary and expensive way to move on. A merger means two companies coming together and forming a new company altogether and in this case the control would be evenly distributed among the owners of both the companies. If Walmart enters in UK market by merger, it needs to share its control of ownership with the other company. Now if Walmart has to hold on its uneven control, it has to go by acquiring a company or companies in UK (DePamphilis, 2008). The current economic state has been tough for the prospective buyers and at the same time has brought source of opportunities for them. During the time of recent downturn, the prices of many

Summary of what is the right supply chain for your product Essay

Summary of what is the right supply chain for your product - Essay Example For Innovative products, many companies introduce innovation to give customers an added reason to purchase their products. Innovative products give a company higher profit margins, but their demand is very unpredictable, their life cycle is short. Because of their high-profit margins and unstable demand, innovative products necessitate a special supply chain than functional products. Supply chain has two different functions: these include physical and the market mediation function (Fisher, 112). The supply chain physical function includes converting raw materials into parts, components, and transferring all of them from one position in the supply chain to the next position. Market mediation ensures that the variety of products reaching the market matches what the consumers want to buy. The predictable demand of functional demand products makes market mediation simple because it nearly achieves a perfect match between supply and demand. Uncertainty is intrinsic in innovative products, and companies accept that, but companies that grew up in oligopoly with less competition find it more difficult to accept the high levels of uncertainty that exist today in many

A Review of Literature on How to Manage International Joint Venture - 1

A of on How to Manage International Joint Venture Successfully - Literature review Example This presents companies with greater opportunity to explore new foreign markets. IJV is an endeavor by a foreign firm to complement its product with local inputs and knowledge or in another case where the foreign firm has no right for property acquisition. Although IJVs have greater advantages, many severe problems appear to be intrinsic characteristics associated with poor IJV management. Many researches revealed that IJVs are volatile, hard to effectively manage and often fail especially when the venture is formed in a developing country. These researches stress that main reason for failure is inherent difficulties and tensions between the firms in managing the IJVs. Why Joint Ventures Fail Rond and Bouchikhi (2004) highlighted that this form of organization is quite challenging. In this context, cooperation as the main characteristic inherently required to defuse internal and external tensions. Hamel (1991) identifies the possibility of incompatibility with partner’s object ives resulting in conflict of resource priorities. This makes ventures prone to instability and ultimately to failure (Yan & Zeng, 1999). Many joint ventures are destined to failure because of following reasons:- Unrealistic Idea – In ideal scenario, companies form joint ventures because they do not have the required resources or expertise to undertake such efforts at their own. In fact, this form of partnership is more directed by risk sharing rather than resource sharing. Risks associated need to be evaluated because the risks identified by one firm prior to forming the venture would still be there and may not be mitigated by the cooperation of two firms turning into an unrealistic idea prone to failure. Inadequate Planning – Usually, there are no plans and what is available is a statement of intention or a form of memorandum of understanding describing the contribution and profit shares of both the firms. However, there lacks a proper plan for managing the venture, accomplishing the actual task and set the modalities of interaction and conflict resolution between the two firms. The plan must include:- The arrangement on which Joint Venture is based Future tax planning Both party’s contribution and obligation to provide resources Provisions for meeting the future needs Logistics planning Decision making and management Distribution of earned assets Issue and conflict resolution Conditions and provisions for conclusion Inadequate Capital Investment- Both parties usually allocate a fixed amount of budget that is deemed enough for the Joint Venture to meet its end objectives. However, costs overrun resulting in dispute and arguments. This necessitates thorough risk management planning and allocate contingency amount to cater for such situations. Lack of Leadership –In Joint Ventures, each party would like to act in leadership role to take control of situation and credit to itself. This may result in stalemate causing huge damage to ve ntures. Thus it is very critical to define in the beginning the roles and the mode for conduct of daily operations. Lack of Commitment – Companies usually expect huge and quick profits from a Joint Venture and when expectations are not realized, the parties begin to lose interest in the venture. Thus it is very

Chapter Questions From Global health 101 richard skolnik book Essay

Chapter Questions From Global health 101 richard skolnik book - Essay Example Global health is the science that prioritizes health improvement and equity in the global context (Skolnik 7). Medical approach focuses on the individual while public health focuses on the population. medical approach is a personalized service while public health is a public service. Medical approach focuses on diagnosis of the ailment, treatment and care of the individual while public health focuses on prevention and health promotion in the society (Skolnik 7). Millennium development goals are a crucial part of a country’s development effort. The nations declared to meet the goals by 2015. The goal to reduce child mortality, improve maternal health and combat disease are related to health (Skolnik 10). The keys to eradication of smallpox include advances in technology, cooperation between global health actors and government commitment. The lesson learnt is leadership and commitment are key to a successful global health program (Skolnik

Is Doubt the Key to Knowledge Essay Example for Free

Is Doubt the Key to Knowledge Essay As a student currently taking the International Baccalaureate, I constantly question the differences between the several areas of knowledge which I study. In a period where technology shows constant developments which trigger new discoveries and establish new facts, a critical outlook is essential in order to assess the validity and limitations of knowledge claims that arise within these fields. The twenty-first century has been called the age of information, where individuals have the ability to communicate freely and where knowledge becomes increasingly accessible. This seems to create an environment where knowledge prospers freely, and where doubt is gradually becoming extinct. However, many still argue that this new age of information bombardment creates a false sensation of certainty, and a series of unsupported convictions. Almost all areas of knowledge have a particular way of achieving values of truth, when that is possible whatsoever. This is directly linked to the ways of knowing in Theory of Knowledge, (emotion, perception, language and reason) as well as through the methods each field uses in its attempts to explain something, or to reach truth. Furthermore, it is important to recognize the several â€Å"paradigm shifts†, as in the term first coined by Thomas Kuhn[1], that change the perception and methods through which we acquire and interpret knowledge, as well as our definition of truth. Scientific certainty derives from countless experimentations and observations, and many debate whether scientific truth can ever be reached. History, on the other hand, is rigorously based on personal experience and interpretation of individual accounts, which allows for partiality and bias. This essay aims to evaluate and distinguish these two areas of knowledge, as well as determine the possible legitimacy and certainty that can be obtained from the knowledge claims produced in each field. Historical analysis is one the most controversial areas of knowledge, possibly due its extremely ambiguous and uncertain nature. Historians may disagree over the causes and consequences of nearly any historical event. It is important to remember that history is based on paradigms. As a result, it s almost impossible to find a particular period in history which has not been marked by disputes between historians, attempting to determine what actually happened. Thomas Carlyle, a 19th century historian and teacher at the University of Edinburgh, once stated that â€Å"The history of the world is but the biography of great men†, an allusion to The Great Man Theory, one of the many paradigms that have bent the shape of historical analysis. If we take the Second World War as an example, it seems as if the historical context of the war is seen through the actions of men such as Adolph Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Benito Mussolini and Winston Churchill. Another paradigm that can be observed in historical thought is the â€Å"Rise and Fall† concept, which tends to evaluate the history of empires and historical powers in terms of two phases: the ascent and decline. Examples of this paradigm can be found in many titles of history books: â€Å"The Rise and Fall of the Holy Roman Empire[2]†, â€Å"The Growth and Decline of the French Monarchy[3]†, â€Å"The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich[4]†, amongst others. Furthermore, as we analyze the history of the Second World War, we also find correlations with another historical paradigm, best exemplified by the famous proverb: â€Å"History is written by the victor†. The argument proposed is quite clear; those who triumph at War and reach power will inevitably influence and determine the course of history. In order to better illustrate this claim, two extracts follow, concerning the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941; the first, a broadcast by Winston Churchill to the British people, and finally a speech given by Adolph Hitler in Berlin, proclaiming the invasion of the USSR: â€Å"At 4 oclock this morning Hitler attacked and invaded Russia. (†¦) A non-aggression treaty had been solemnly signed and was in force between the two countries. †¦) Then, suddenly, without declaration of war, German bombs rained down from the sky upon the Russian cities. (†¦) Hitler is a monster of wickedness†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [5] Winston Churchill, London, June 22 1941 â€Å"National Socialists! (†¦)The German people have never had hostile feelings toward the peoples of Russia ( ) Germany has never attempted to spread its National Socialist w orldview to Russia. Rather, the Jewish-Bolshevist rulers in Moscow have constantly attempted to subject us and the other European peoples to their rule. (†¦) which were particularly severe for Germans living in the affected nations. †¦) The purpose of this front is no longer the protection of the individual nations, but rather the safety of Europe, and therefore the salvation of everyone. May God help us in this battle. † Adolph Hitler, Berlin, June 25 1941[6] Analyzing both speeches, the difficulties of validating a historical account become quite evident, since there are always several perspectives concerning a specific historical event. As it relates to the ways of knowing, history is extremely dependent on perception and language, making it particularly hard for historians in hindsight to corroborate one account over the other and recognise its legitimacy. However, offering a personal perspective, I would most likely tend to support Churchill’s account of the 1941 Nazi occupation of the USSR. Yet, after exposing the uncertainties and ambiguity of historical knowledge, I begin to question whether or not my perception would differ, had Hitler and the Axis’ forces won the war. Unfortunately, it seems that would most likely be the case. Science is widely regarded as one of the most reliable fields of inquiry. When considering its potential for accurate and impartial conclusions, my initial response was to consider the scientific method the ideal, archetypal model of discovery. History seems simply too inseparable from human emotion and interpretation to produce a constantly indisputable account of facts, while science appears to be the most reliable and precise area of knowledge, solely based on rationality, empirical evidence and observable patterns. The scientific method, starting with a predicted hypothesis, followed by an experiment, collection and interpretation of data, which ultimately leads to a conclusion which could be repeated by any other scientist, gives the impression of being the perfect â€Å"truth formula†. On the other hand, when looking at the progress of science over time, it is important to realize that, together with the other areas of knowledge, real certainty can never be achieved in science. Even when scientific models survive repeated testing which fail to disprove them, they cannot be universally accepted as truths, but only provisional truths that are simply given functional certainty. The Caloric Theory[7], introduced by Lavoisier, was once a commonly accepted theory that was discredited in the 19th century by the mechanical theory of heat introduced by Carnot[8], which later on evolved into the science of thermodynamics. This supports the claim that scientific â€Å"truths† only exist on their specific â€Å"scope of applicability†[9]: â€Å"Science progresses through trial and error, mostly error. Every new theory or law must be skeptically and rigorously tested before acceptance. Most fail, and are swept under the rug, even before publication. Others, like the luminiferous ether[10], flourish for a while, then their inadequacies accumulate till they are intolerable, and they are quietly abandoned when something better comes along. Such mistakes will be found out. Theres always someone who will delight in exposing them.  Science progresses by making mistakes, correcting the mistakes, then moving on to other matters. If we stopped making mistakes, scientific progress would stop. † [11] In conclusion, it seems that uncertainty will always be an indissoluble part of every area of knowledge. We can also conclude that historical and scientific knowledge have an incredibly different way of explaining and interpreting things, mostly due to the ways of knowing, or according to which filter each area of knowledge attempts to express their ideas, and draw conclusions. While many may argue that the main purpose of these areas of knowledge is to explain and generate answers, some would say that their aim is inquiry, and their purpose is to generate questions. If we analyze these fields in hindsight, it is hard to dispute the claim that what we now consider hard facts are simply theories waiting to be discredited by the progress of our existence. Although at first I found myself to be disappointed with my findings, I stand corrected. The pursuit of knowledge, the quest for truth, is a never ending cycle of discoveries, and most importantly rediscoveries. Once we are certain of anything, we kill this cycle, we close the book, and the entire process loses significance and context. In the human drive for knowledge and higher awareness, as in the questions that generate the angst and sorrow of human consciousness, there can never be an unquestionable truth, an indisputable answer, for certainty is an illusion.

RISK FACTORS: ANAEMIA AMONG ANTENATAL MOTHERS

RISK FACTORS: ANAEMIA AMONG ANTENATAL MOTHERS Anemia in pregnancy constitutes a major public health problem in developing countries. It is defined as reduction in the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood as a result of fewer circulating erythrocytes than normal or a decrease in the concentration of Haemoglobin (Hb) (Hoque et al., 2009). During pregnancy, there is an increase in amount of iron required to increase red cell mass, expand plasma volume and to allow growth of fetal-placental unit (Scholl, 2005). The deficiency occurs through reduced production or an increased loss of red blood cells. Anaemia in pregnant women in developing countries is generally presumed to be the result of nutritional deficiency. In Malaysia, the incidence of anaemia among pregnant mothers attending public antenatal clinics was reported to be 35% (Jamaiyah et al., 2007). Hadipour et al. (2010) reported a higher incidence of anaemia among Iranian pregnant women i.e. 51.4%. Iron deficiency anaemia is the most prevalent nutritional deficiency problem affecting pregnant women. Pregnant women are considered to be the most vulnerable group, since the additional demands that are made on maternal stores during this period exposes them to various latent deficiencies that manifest themselves as anaemia (Hoque et al., 2009). Increased iron requirements, low pre-pregnancy iron stores and continued inadequate dietary intakes of iron exacerbate this physiologic anaemia during pregnancy in many regions of this world (Christian et al., 2003). Brabin et al. (2001) reported a strong association between severe anaemia (OR 3.51, 95% CI: 2.05-6.00) and maternal mortality. Anaemia may result from both nutritional and nonnutritional factors, specifically besides iron, deficiency of micronutrients such as vitamins A, C and B-12 and folic acid may contribute to the development of anaemia. These nutrients may affect haemoglobin synthesis either directly or indirectly by affecting absorption and/or mobilization (Ramakrishnan et al., 2004). Systemic evaluation of the efficacy of antenatal iron supplementation is known to raise haemoglobin concentration, although it effects are influenced by dose and compliance level (Christian et al., 2003). Inability to meet the required level for iron and other vitamins either as a result of dietary or supplementary gives rise to anaemia (Idowu et al., 2007). According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 1998), anaemia should be considered when the hemoglobin level is below 11 g/dL. Anaemia ranges from mild, moderate to severe and WHO classifies the hemoglobin level for each of these types of anemia in pregnancy at 10.0 -10.9 g/dL (mild anemia), 7-9 g/dL (moderate anemia) and The effects of maternal anemia on the fetus were considerable and include the following: the prematurity rate among infants of anemic mothers was 18.1%, 3 times that of infants born to nonanemic mothers; the perinatal loss in the anemic mother was 13.1%, twice that of the nonanemic mother (6.8%); and the stillbirth rate among infants born to anemic mothers was 91.0/1000 compared with a rate of 15.7/1000 among infants born to nonanemic mothers. The findings indicate the seriousness of severe anemia in pregnancy. Etiological factors are considered since this will be the basis of rational therapy. Iron deficiency anemia may develop for several reasons. There is usually a dietary deficiency of iron, and there may also be a lowered absorption from the gut. Also, there may be excessive blood loss due to hookworm and menorrhagia, and there are the demands of repeated childbearing. Apart from hookworm infestation, insufficient dietary intake of iron was the principal cause of anemia among the women in the study with iron deficiency anemia. Among the women with megatoblastic anemia folic acid was the prime deficiency leading to this type of anemia. The anemia was aggravated by increasing malnutrition as demonstrated by diminished serum albumin and globulin concentration. The diagnosis of severe iron deficiency anemia was made by estimation of the hemoglobin concentration, supplemented in some cases by serum iron studies. Megaloblastic anemia in pregnancy can only be diagnosed with accuracy by a bone marrow smear. Consideration of the etiology of anemia in Malaysia led to a standard treatment among the pregnant women studies. The treatment approach is reviewed in detail. In Malaysia, pregnant women from a lower social-economic group indicated the prevalence of anaemia was 30-40%. Since then, Malaysia has had tremendous economic changes and is expected to have changes in the prevalence of anaemia as well. This study was conducted with the aim of identifying of risk factors that contributing anaemia among antenatal mothers such as sociodemografic data, prenatal care and maternal health status. 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT Anaemia still constitutes a public health problem in the world, especially in the developing countries (Royston Armstrong),1989,Abou Zahr Royston,1992).Nutritional anaemia is found more among rural mothers, where poor dietary intake and parasitic infections are more common. Many women start their lives with insufficient iron stores, but also, because of inadequate child spacing, they have little time to build up their iron levels between pregnancies (WHO,1975). The effect of anaemia in pregnancy has been shown to be associated with an increase risk of maternal and fetal morbility (Tasker,1958;Llewellen-,1965;Lourdeadin,1969;Baker,1978). However, risk factors such as anaemia in pregnancy can be controlled and monitored by good antenatal care and appropriate action, including referral, in accordance to the level of severity of the anaemia. In Malaysia, 30 to 40% of pregnant women and 25% of women from rural communities suffer from iron deficiency anaemia. The most common haematologic complication of pregnancy and is associated with increased rates of premature birth, low birth weight and perinatal mortality. According to Jamaiyah et al.(2007), found that the prevalence of anaemia during pregnancy is 35% and mostly of the mild type and more prevalent in the Indian and Malays. WHO estimates that more than half of pregnant women in the world have a haemoglobin level indicative of anaemia. ( Base on the many contradicting finding of this similar study, therefore the aim of this study is to determine the factors that contributing anaemia during pregnancy among mothers admitted at antenatal ward, Hospital Jeli, Kelantan. 1.2 Objectives 1.2.1 General objectives To determine factors associated with anaemia during pregnancy among mothers admitted at Antenatal Ward, Hospital Jeli, Kelantan. 1.2.2 Specific objectives 1. To determine the haemoglobin level for mothers who admitted at antenatal ward ,Hospital Jeli, Kelantan 2. To determine factors associated with anaemia mothers. 1.3 Benefit of study Knowledge on factors associated anaemia during pregnancy among mothers such as factors social demographic, prenatal care of maternal status and maternal nutrition of the mothers. To prevent and reduce the prevalence of low birth weight among infants and to prevent maternal and prenatal mortality. 1.4 Conception frame work Figure 1: factors that contributing with anaemia Anemia in pregnancy constitutes a major public health problem in developing countries. (Brabin et al.2001). This conceptual framework describe those maternal factors that may influence anaemia among antenatal mothers. The important factors are the socio demographic data such as the age of mother, race, parity, education level of mothers, Occupation of mothers, Occupation of father and number of dependent. Perinatal care variables that were studied were access to antenatal booking, number of visit to antenatal clinic ,parity,Period of Gestation (POG) ,vitamin and iron supplements, family planning and eating taboos. Maternal health factors such as past medical history, Big baby, APH, placenta praevia, hyperemesis , Hb level ,Multiple pregnancy and others were included in this study to determine the factors that contributing anaemia mothers. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Definition of anaemia in pregnancy In pregnancy , anemia has a significant impact on the health of the fetus as well as that of the mother. The physiologic expansion of the plasma volume is detactable as early as 6 to 8 weeks gestationan (Wood Ronneberg, 2006). The world health organization (WHO) defines anemia in pregnancy as haemoglobin concentration of less than 11.0g/dl. WHO estimates that more than half of pregnant women in the world have a haemoglobin level indicative of anemia ( Iron is essential for multiple metabolic processes, including oxygen transport, DNA synthesis, and electron transport. Iron equilibrium in the body is regulated carefully to ensure that sufficient iron is absorbed in order to compensate for body losses of iron. While body loss iron quantitavely is as important as absorption in terms of maintaining iron equilibrium, it is a more passive process than absorption. Consistent errors in maintaining this equilibrium lead to either iron deficiency or iron overload. Iron balance is achieved largely by regulation of iron absorption in the proximal small interstine. Either diminished absorbable dietary iron or excessive loss of body iron can cause iron deficiency. Decrease absorption usually is due to an insufficient intake of dietary iron is an absorbable form. It si support by Ladewig et al.(2006), found that the common anemia of pregnancy are due to either to insufficient haemoglobin production related to nutritional deficiency in iron or folic acid during pregnancy. Anemia is the most common haematologic complication of pregnancy and is associated with increased rates of premature birth, loe birth weight and perinatal mortality. According to Allen (2000), iron deficiency anemia is a factor that can cause preterm birth and low birth weight and can effect the neonatal health status. Haemoglobin values drop during the second trimester of pregnancy because of the dilution of the blood caused by plasma increases and this physiologic anemia is normal. During the third trimester, haemoglobin levels generally return to pre pregnancy levels because of increased absorption of iron from the gastrointestinal tract. Generally, a women is considered anemia if her haemoglobin is less than 11 g/dl during the first and third trimester or less than 10.5 g/dl during the second trimester (Cunningham et al., 2001). In malaysia, ion deficiencies always happen in malay and Indians pregnant women because their particular eating habits of different races. It support study done by mohanambal et al.(2002), found that iron deficiency was sees in Malays and Indians, no iron deficienciency was seen among the Chinese. 2.2 Factors associated with anemia 2.2.1 socio- demographic factors Malaysian infant mortality diffentials, because socioeconomic development has very clearly had a diffential impact by ethnic group. The Chinese rates of infant mortality are significantly lower than the Malay or Intdian rates. Low socioeconomic level was the most important risk factor for anaemia among antenatal mothers. And was independent of other factors, including those related to production and nutrition, health service and prinatal care. It is support by Sohl Moore (2000), reported that there are clear genetic and constituonal influences that act on foetal growth, it is estimated that 40% of birth weight is due to heredity and the remaining 60% to environmental factors. According to kennedy et al.(1998) and Ecob and Smith (1999), among the socio-economic factors are income, education, occupation, household leadership and gender differences related to roles within the family. It support the findings studies by Tuntiserance et al. (1999), studied a cohort of 1797 pregnant women visiting antenatal clinics, they found that significantly factors between socio-economic indicators and pregnancy outcomes. The indicators were family socio-economic status, maternal education, maternal occupation, family income and work exposures, while the pregnancy outcomes were base on anaemia mothers. Age of mother Maternal age is an important and dependent risk factor for adverse pregnancy outcome(Delbaere et al.,2007). Epidemiological studies suggest that there is a trend in developing nations to delay the age of the first pregnancy. Maternal age > 35 years for first pregnancy is associated with low birth weight, intra uterine growth retardation and prematurity. It is supports the finding study by Ann et al. (2007) that have same conclusion that increasing maternal age to be associated with low birth weight and anaemia during delivery. Educational level of mother Educational level of mother are linked to certain prenatal risk factors such as anaemia and to proven detrimental to birth outcomes . this can help intervention workers to identify the at risk mother. Early identification can result in focused programs administered directly to the individuals most likely to benefit (Wasser, 1995). According to Currie and moretti (2003) started that the effect of maternal education on birth weight I the US with a policy increasing the supply of colleges when the mother was teenager. The rationale is that the opening of a college reduces the cost of higher education in a way that is uncorrelated with the unobservable term correlating both education and health. Family income Family income is generally considered a primary measure of a nations financial prosperity. Income or poverty status had a statistically significant effect on anaemia mothers and both low birth weight and the mortality rate. According to Duncan and Brooks-Gunn (1997), found the effects of income or poverty status and a number of pregnancy-related health services on birth outcomes for white and black women also found that for whites but not for blaks. Prenatal care of mothers Antenatal care is the clinical assessment of mother and fetus during pregnancy, for the purpose of obtaining the best possible outcome for the mother and child. Antenatal care traditionally involves a number of routine visits for assessment, to a variety of healthcare professionals, on a regular basis throughout the pregnancy. Number of children (parity) Parity was determined to all the number of previous pregnancies resulting in either live birth or still births after 22 weeks of gestational age. Maternal parity and age were significantly positively associated with anaemia mothers. Women often become anaemic during pregnancy because the demand for iron and other vitamins is increased. The mother must increase her production of red blood cells and, in addition, the fetus and placenta need their own supply of iron, which can only be obtained from the mother. In order to have enough red blood cells for the fetus, the body starts to produce more red blood cells and plasma. It has been calculated that the blood volume increases approximately 50 per cent during the pregnancy, although the plasma amount is disproportionately greater. This causes a dilution of the blood, making the haemoglobin concentration fall. This is a normal process, with the haemoglobin concentration at its lowest between weeks 25 and 30. The pregnant woman may need additional iron supplementation, and a blood test called serum ferritin is the best way of monitoring this. Many women are anaemic during pregnancy. A recent study by the Anaemia Working Group found that about one-third of pregnant Malaysian women are anaemic. (Dr. Milton Lum , 2009).Anaemia occurs because there is increased demand for iron and vitamins in pregnancy. The mother has to produce more red blood cells for herself and the foetus. More plasma is also produced.The blood volume increases by about 50% during pregnancy with a disproportionate increase in plasma. This leads to a dilution of the blood with the haemoglobin falling. The haemoglobin is at its lowest level between 24 and 30 weeks of pregnancy. Poor diet: If the diet is low in iron and vitamins, especially folic acid, there is a risk of anaemia as these are the raw materials needed to produce sufficient numbers of red blood cells. Vegetarians who have a strict diet may not get enough iron or vitamin B12 in their food. Family history: Some women whose family members have anaemia because of inherited genes are at increased risk. Chronic conditions like kidney or liver failure, and cancer increases the risk. Chronic blood loss from some parts of the body due to ulcers, haemorrhoids, etc, may lead to iron deficiency anaemia. 2.3 Regulation of iron transfer to the fetus Transfer of iron from the mother to the fetus is supported by a substantial increase in maternal iron absorption during pregnancy and is regulated by the placenta .Serum ferritin usually falls markedly between 12 and 25 wk of gestation, probably as a result of iron utilization for expansion of the maternal red blood cell mass. Most iron transfer to the fetus occurs after week 30 of gestation, which corresponds to the time of peak efficiency of maternal iron absorption. Serum transferrin carries iron from the maternal circulation to transferrin receptors located on the apical surface of the placental syncytiotrophoblast, holotransferrin is endocytosed, iron is released, and apotransferrin is returned to the maternal circulation. The free iron then binds to ferritin in placental cells where it is transferred to apotransferrin, which enters from the fetal side of the placenta and exits as holotransferrin into the fetal circulation. This placental iron transfer system regulates iron tran sport to the fetus. When maternal iron status is poor, the number of placental transferrin receptors increases so that more iron is taken up by the placenta. Excessive iron transport to the fetus may be prevented by the placental synthesis of ferritin. 2.4 Effect of anemia on maternal mortality and morbidity The major concern about the adverse effects of anemia on pregnant women is the belief that this population is at greater risk of perinatal mortality and morbidity. Maternal mortality in selected developing countries ranges from 27 (India) to 194 (Pakistan) deaths per 100000 live births. Some data show an association between a higher risk of maternal mortality and severe anemia, although such data were predominantly retrospective observations of an association between maternal hemoglobin concentrations at, or close to, delivery and subsequent mortality. Such data do not prove that maternal anemia causes higher mortality because both the anemia and subsequent mortality could be caused by some other condition. For example, in a large Indonesian study, the maternal mortality rate for women with a hemoglobin concentration 2.5 Maternal anemia and birth weight The relation between maternal anemia and birth weight has been reviewed more extensively elsewhere in this issue. In several studies, a U-shaped association was observed between maternal hemoglobin concentrations and birth weight. Abnormally high hemoglobin concentrations usually indicate poor plasma volume expansion, which is also a risk for low birth weight. Lower birth weights in anemic women have been reported in several studies. In a multivariate regression analysis of data from 691 women in rural Nepal, adjusted decrements in neonatal weight of 38, 91, 187, and 153 g were associated with hemoglobin concentrations à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥20, 90-109, 70-89 and 2.6 Maternal iron deficiency anemia and duration of gestation There is a substantial amount of evidence showing that maternal iron deficiency anemia early in pregnancy can result in low birth weight subsequent to preterm delivery. For example, Welsh women who were first diagnosed with anemia (hemoglobin 2.7 Maternal anemia and infant health An association between maternal anemia and lower infant Apgar scores was reported in some studies. In 102 Indian women in the first stage of labor, higher maternal hemoglobin concentrations were correlated with better Apgar scores and with a lower risk of birth asphyxia. When pregnant women were treated with iron or a placebo in Niger, Apgar scores were significantly higher in those infants whose mothers received iron. A higher risk of premature birth is an additional concern related to the effect of maternal iron deficiency on infant health; preterm infants are likely to have more perinatal complications, to be growth-stunted, and to have low stores of iron and other nutrients. In the Jamaican Perinatal Mortality Survey of >10000 infants in 1986, there was an à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 50% greater chance of mortality in the first year of life for those infants whose mothers had not been given iron supplements during pregnancy, although the iron status of these infants and their mothers was not assessed. Apart from this survey, there is little known concerning the effects of maternal iron status during pregnancy on the subsequent health and development of the infant. 2.8 Benefits of iron supplementation on maternal iron status There is little doubt that iron supplementation improves maternal iron status. Even in industrialized countries, iron supplements have been reported to increase hemoglobin, serum ferritin, mean cell volume, serum iron, and transferrin saturation. These improvements are seen in late pregnancy, even in women who enter pregnancy with adequate iron status. When compared with unsupplemented pregnant women, differences in iron status due to supplementation usually occur within à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 3 mo of the time supplementation begins. Supplementation can reduce the extent of iron depletion in the third trimester. However, for women who enter pregnancy with low iron stores, iron supplements often fail to prevent iron deficiency. The benefits of iron supplementation on maternal iron status during pregnancy become even more apparent postpartum. This is illustrated by a Swedish study in which all pregnant women who did not take iron supplements had less than sufficient iron stores in late pregnancy compared with 43% of supplemented (200 mg Fe/d) women. Use of nutritional supplements Intake of iron supplements during pregnancy was also found to have a protective effect with anaemia in pregnancy. This is consistent with the findings of some other studies on iron supplementation and pregnancy outcome (Hesss et al.,2001). Iron supplementation during pregnancy protects a women from becoming anaemic because the required amounts may not be supplied from dietary intake during this period. Controlled trials of iron supplementation during pregnancy have consistently demonstrated positive effects on maternal iron status at delivery. The prevalence of low hemoglobin or hematocrict is reduced: serum ferritin, serum iron and almost every other measure of maternal iron status, including bone marrow iron, are increased in comparison with controls (Mohamed, 1998). Malaysia has gone a long way towards improving the nutritional status of the population. Malnutrition has been defined as a pathological state resulting from a relative or a absolute deficiency or excess of one or more essential nutrients, it can comprise four forms-under-nutrition, over-nutrition, imbalance and specific deficiency (Park, 20000. Antenatal booking Antenatal booking is a an assessment of the physical, social, psychological and emosional state of the pregnant women. The main purpose of the booking visit to obtain a comprehensive history, establish the gestational age and identify maternal and ftal risk factors. Baseline investigations are performed. According to Adesina et al. (2003), stated that early antenatal booking and good control in pregnancy are strongly advocated as means of achieving good pregnancy outcome. It support by Tayie and Lartey (2008), found that early antenatal care was associated with pregnancy outcomes. Number of visits to antenatal clinics Antenatal clinic (ANC), refer to pregnancy related services provided between conception and delivery consisting of monitoring health status mother and her pregnancy. ANC was expected to ontain of mother to get anaemia and preterm delivery rete, a higher average birth weight and decreased neonatal mortality. According to Kost et al.(1998), antenatal clinic (ANC) visits could possibly be seen as indicator of the mothers sense of responsibility to her unborn baby. Visit to ANC services could also have a positive influence on the attitude of the mother, will impact on birth-outcomes. Total numbers of ANC visits for the current pregnancy were categorized as >4 visit and 4 ANC visits with an appropriate health care provided (World health organization,2004) ANC visits as part of primary health care to early detection and treatment of probable problem areas, and contribute to the quality of the birth outcome. ANC has been associated with improved maternal and perinatal outcome, but there is no agreement on the most effecting timing of visit antenatal mother. In Malaysia, the frequency of ANC visit depends on the gestational such as 0-28 week every one mont, 28-36 week every 2 week and 36-4- week every 1 weeks. Antepartum haemorrhage (APH) vagina bleeding is an important factor predictor of adverse effects anemia mothers. About 50% of women who bleeding in last half of pregnancy have placenta praevia or abruptio placenta. When ever the bleeding occurs at the beginning of pregnancy, however the cause is often unknown ( Valero de Bernabe et al.,2004). CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Study Location This study were carried out at the antenatal ward, Hospital Jeli, Kelantan. 3.2 Study Design A cross-sectional study design were done in antenatal ward, Hospital Jeli, Kelantan from period of January until March 2011. 3.3 Sampling 3.3.1 Sampling population All mothers who admitted to antenatal ward, Hospital Jeli, Kelantan during the period of January until March 2011 were included in the study. 3.3.2 Sampling frame A list of all antenatal mothers who are admitted at antenatal ward Hospital Jeli, Kelantan during the period of January March 2011 were obtained. 3.3.3 Sampling Method Simple random Sampling, where all antenatal mothers who fulfil inclusion criteria were selected. 3.3.4 Sample Size The minimum sample size required in this study was 30. Data were collected by using close and open ended questionnaires and recode review of admission registered at antenatal ward, Hospital Jeli, Kelantan. In this study, all antenatal mothers who admitted were choosing by Universal sampling. 3.3.5 Inclusion Criteria Mothers who are willing to participate study All The citizen mothers 3.3.6 Exclusion criteria Mothers whos refuse to participate in this study Non citizen mothers Mothers who not understand Malay and English language. 3.4 Research Instrument An interviewer administered questionnaire was developed with two sections: Section A (demographic data) Factors socio demographic (Maternal age, races, education level, family income, employment status, employment status of husband , Hb level and number of dependents. Section B (prenatal care of mothers) Period of gesational , antenatal booking, antenatal clinics ,parity, nutritional supplements,. Section C ( Maternal Health Status) Factors of maternal health status (past medical history, big baby, infection during pregnancy, Ante partum hemorrhage and hyperemesis during pregnancy. 3.5 Definition of study variables The dependent variable: Antenatal mother The independent variables socio demographic factors Age Ethnicity Educational level Primary school Secondary school Tertiary level Occupational of mothers Housewive Professional Non professional Occupational of husband Professional Non professional Agriculture forestry Montly family income. It is divided to 3 categories; 1000-2500 >2500 Hb level of mother during admission Mild anemia ( 10.0 10.9 g/dL ) Moderate anemia (7.0 9 g/dL) Severe anemia ( Number of dependents ii. Prenatal care of mothers Number of children (parity) all the numbers of previous pregnancies resulting in either live births or still births after 22 weeks of gestational age. Number of visits to antenatal clinics that divided to 3 categories 0-4 visit 5-7 visit Above 8 visit Gestational age of mother Time measured from the first day of the womens last menstrual cycle to the current date. Use of nutritional supplements such as iron, folic acid, multivitamin and others iii. Maternal Health status Past medical history -Gestational Diabetic Mellitus (GDM) -Pregnancy Induced Hypertension (PIH) -Thalasaemia Infection Ante Partum Haemorrhage -Placenta praevia -Placenta abruptio Hyperemesis 3.6 Definition of terms 1. Anaemia: Anaemia is a lack of red blood cells, which can lead to a lack of oxygen carrying ability, causing unusual tiredness. Human resource management: Tesco Human resource management: Tesco The aim of the assignment is to evaluate strategic human resource management of Tesco Plc with reference to theory and practical approach, to study their Human Resource Management functions and evaluate the contribution of approaches and organisational structure. Human resource management is the process of acquiring, appraising, training, and compensating employees and of attending to their health and safety, and fairness concerns. HRM functions include a wide range of activities, and key among them is the responsibility of human resources. This includes deciding what staffing needs the company has and whether to hire employees or use independent contractors, recruiting and training of the employees, ensuring they always give high performance and ensuring personnel management practices to confirm laws and regulations. HRM activities also include managing employee benefits and compensation, personnel policies and employee records. TRADITIONAL DEFINITION Human resource management is the moulding of the human resources in such a fashion that the goals of the organisation are met and at the same time the need satisfaction of all the employees at all levels is attained to the highest possible degree. MODERN DEFINITION Human Resource (Personnel) Management is the planning, organizing, directing and controlling of the procurement, development, compensation, integration, maintenance, and separation of human resources to the end that individual, organizational and societal objectives are accomplished.- Edwin B. Flippo CONTEMPOPARY DEFINITION Human resource management (HRM) is the effective management of people at work. HRM examines what can or should be done to make working people more productive and satisfied.- John M. Ivancevic NATURE OF HRM Human resource management is a process of bringing organizations and people together in order to meet each others goals. Some of its features are as following: Pervasive force- Human resource management is pervasive in nature. Action oriented- Human resource management focuses on performance rather than written rules and procedures. Employees problems are solved through rational policies. Individual oriented- It helps employees in developing their potential full. It allows them to give their best efforts to the organization. It motivates them through systematic process of recruitment, selection, training and development with fair wage policies. People oriented- HRM is about people at work, as individuals as well as groups. It puts people on their assigned jobs to produce good results. Future oriented- HRM does help an organization to meet its goal in the future by preparing motivated and competent employees. Development oriented- HRM helps in developing full potential of the employees. Integrating mechanism- HRM helps in building and maintaining strong relations between people working at different levels in an organization. Comprehensive function- HRM is concerned a decision which can have an impact on the staff. Auxiliary- The purpose of the HR department is to advise and assist the operating managers to do work related to personnel more efficiently and effectively. NATURE OF HRM IMPORTANCE OF HRM People have always been the center of the organizations, and their importance is increasing in todays knowledge based industries. Success of an organization depends on knowledge, skills and abilities of the employees, especially as it helps to establish core competencies over its competitors. HRM helps an organization and its people to reach their goals at following level: Enterprise Level: Organizations can attract and retain best of the people in the organization if it has good human resource practices. Planning in advance helps the company to know what type of people it requires in short, medium and long term. It helps in training the employees for challenging roles, developing right attitude towards the company, promoting a spirit of team among employees and developing commitment and loyalty through reward schemes. Individual Level It helps in building teams and promotes team spirit among employees. It allows growth opportunities to people who have capabilities and potential to rise. It generates compassion and commitment in people towards their jobs. Society Level: Society as a whole is good beneficiary of human resource practices. It helps in generating employment opportunities. It puts talents to the best use. Companies that have good HRM policies stay ahead of their competitors and produce excellent results. National Level: Effective use of human resource results in better exploitation of physical, natural and financial resources. People with proper attitude and values and right skills help the nation to get ahead and compete with the best of countries. TESCO- COMPANY BACKGROUND Tesco was founded in 1919 by Jack Cohen. He started his new business venture by selling surplus groceries from a stall in the east end of London. On the first day, he made  £1 profit from  £4 of sales. Tesco has come a long way since then and is the fourth largest food retailers in the world after Wal-Mart of the USA, Carrefour of France and Home Depot of the USA. Tesco PLC is listed on the LSE, with the symbol TSCO. It is listed on NASDAQ and Irish Stock Exchange as well. Today it is operating 5,008 stores worldwide of which 2,545 stores are in the UK, and employing over 472,000 people worldwide of which 287,669 are in the UK. Not only Tesco has managed to monopolise the food sector, it has also diversified into a number of other sectors, some of which are insurance, mobile networks, clothing and electronics. However this assignment will focus on the retail sector in the United Kingdom. Albeit that Tesco has 2,545 stores locally, it is considered as operating in global environment. Apart from the United Kingdom, Tesco has stores in six other European countries; Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Republic of Ireland and Turkey. Furthermore, it also operates in Asia, and has stores in Malaysia, China, Korea, Thailand, Japan and Taiwan. Tesco requires people across a wide range of both store-based and non-store based jobs:- In store, checkout staffs, stock handlers, supervisors and many specialists such as bakers and pharmacists are needed. For distribution depots it requires people skilled in stock management and logistics. Head office provides the infrastructure that helps to run Tesco efficiently. In the head office, main roles include human resources, legal services, marketing, information technology, property management and accounting. FUNCTIONS OF HRM IN TESCO PLC RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION Recruitment involves attracting the suitable applicant to apply for the vacancies. Tesco advertises for the jobs in different ways. The process varies upon the type of job available. Tesco, first of all, looks at its internal Talent Plan to fill a vacancy. In this process, its current employees who are looking for a move, either at the same level or on promotion, are listed. If it can not find suitable people in this Talent Plan, Tesco advertises the post internally over its intranet for two weeks. For recruitments from outside the organisation, Tesco advertises vacancies through its website www.tesco-careers.com or through display boards in stores. Applications for the managerial positions are made online. Applicants who are chosen, have an interview followed by attendance at an assessment centre for the final stages of the selection process. People who are looking for store based jobs with Tesco can submit their CV at the store or can register through Jobcentre Plus. The store prepares a waiting list of people applying and calls them as jobs become available. For jobs that are hard to fill or are specialised in nature, such as pharmacists and bakers, Tesco goes for external advertising through following mediums: Through radio and television Through website and offline media By placing advertisements on Google or in magazines. Tesco seeks the most cost effective way of attracting right applicants. Tough it is expensive to advertise on radio and television, it is necessary to ensure that right people get to know about the vacancies. Tesco makes it easy for the applicants to find out about the available jobs and has a simple application process. An applicant can find about management jobs, head office jobs and local jobs, through Tescos website. There is an online application form for applicants to submit directly. Skills required There are six work levels within the organisation and each level requires particular skills and behaviours. Level 1 These are frontline jobs and include working directly with customers, various in-store tasks such as filling the shelves with stock. Candidate should have the ability to work accurately with enthusiasm and should be able to work in a team. Level 2 This includes leading a team of employees who are involved in dealing directly with the customers. Candidate should have the ability to manage resources, set targets and constantly work manages and motivates others. Level 3 This includes running an operating unit. It requires management skills that include planning, setting targets and reporting. Level 4 These are supporting operating units and requires good knowledge of the business, ability to lead others and skills to analyse and make decisions. Level 5 People working at this level are responsible for working of Tesco as a whole and should have ability to take major decisions and to lead others. Level 6 This includes the top level management of Tesco PLC which is responsible for Tescos performance. This level requires from candidates an excellent overview of retailing and ability to lead the whole organisation. This framework of Tesco describes the skills and behaviours required at each job and every level of in the company. This helps the candidates to understand whether they possess the right skills and knowledge to carry out their roles. SELECTION Selection involves choosing the most suitable people from those who have applied for a particular job. Screening candidates is an important part of the selection process. This process makes sure that people selected for the interview are best fit with the job requirements. In the first stage of screening, selectors will carefully look at each applicants CV. A well written and positive CV helps Tesco assess whether an applicant matches the specifications required for a particular job. The company also provides a tool called job type match on its webpage. It helps people to let them know where they might fit within the organisation. Candidates who pass screening have to attend an assessment centre. The assessment centres are held in stores and are run by managers. They help to provide consistency in the process of selection. Applicants are given various tasks, this includes working in teams or problem solving exercises. These involve examples of the problems they might have to face at work. Candidates who get approved by the internal assessment centres then have an interview. Line managers take part in the interview to make sure that the candidate fits job requirements. TRAINING Training means acquisition of skills and knowledge by a person for carrying out particular jobs and tasks. The benefits of training employees in an organisation are as follows: It motivates them by increasing their sense of ownership in the organisation. Training makes the employees more productive, organised and flexible. They are able to meet the needs of external and internal customers. Training makes them more effective by imparting new skills and abilities in areas such as decision making. Tescos business image helps Tesco grow. This is because customers are more confident in the competence and knowledge of staff. Tescos training and development module is flexible and structured, which caters to each individual employee needs. This allows the company to identify the potential customers and who have desire to do a bigger and different role to take part in training and develop their skills and leadership capabilities. Tesco follows two types of training methods for the training purpose of its employees. These methods are on the job training and off the job training. On the job training methods include: Shadowing: In this method, a new employee is shown how to do a particular work by an employee who is already working there for a long time and has got good knowledge and skills for that work. Coaching: In this method a designated colleague helps trainees and inspires them to find solutions for the problems they face. Mentoring: In this method, an experienced member of staff acts as an advisor for the new entrants. Job rotation: In this method the trainee is given full responsibilities on a temporary basis. On the job training is directly relevant to the work of the employees and they get to know the people in their area and feel part of a team. The advantages of on the job training methods are as follows- It is costs much less than the off the job training methods. Managers can keep a check on the progress of employees and can help if a problem arises. The employee works during training. Hence, this method of training is more productive. The employee can apply what he/she has learned while working. This results in a better learning. In areas such as team building, organisation and planning or communications, off the job training methods are more appropriate. It involves attending qualified Tesco training staff or external courses run by professional training organisations. At the A Level Options programme detailed induction training is provided from day one. It helps in developing new recruits into managers. This makes new employees meet other trainees and learn about the company and the business objectives extensively. With this kind of elaborate training schedule, they are able to develop the first level management position while working as a Team Leader DEVELOPMENT Development focuses on the growth of the person and extending his/her abilities. Tesco takes the responsibility for training and development of its staff. Primarily, the trainee is responsible for his/her development. The trainee and the manager, both contribute to the programme. The contribution is shown in the following table: TRAINEE LINE MANAGER Identifies and agrees development needs Helps to put together the personal developmental plan Attends workshop and development days Coaching and guiding the trainee as per the developmental plan. Collects evidence of achievements Reviews performance regularly. This he does to ensure that the trainee gets the best from the training Uses the feedback he receives to improve performance and review his development plans Provides feedback Employees of Tesco are encouraged to ask certain strategic questions about themselves in order to assess their ability and skills regarding progress. These questions are:- Do I know how? Can I do it now? What are my current skills? What do I need to achieve a higher position? Options programme Options programme of Tesco provides a long term strategy for development. The employees PERSONAL DEVLOPMENT PLAN includes: Activity plans A learning log A plan, do, review checklist. This is done to monitor when plans are completed. This enables trainees analyse their own progress. Long lasting competencies are produced with the help of personal development. Employees become more productive, positive and valuable to the organisation in the long term. It is a known fact that recruiting new staff costs more than retaining existing staff, therefore for an organisation like Tesco, retaining staff is of prime importance. Development also helps to increase the level of motivation amongst the employees. According to motivation theorists, if employees are given the support to grow their abilities, skills to perform their jobs well and greater responsibility, they become more effective. Tesco needs to ensure that it has the right calibre of staff to build its management team of the future. It requires a staff who can be flexible and who can adapt to change. THE BENEFITS OF TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT All businesses, for financial and non-financial reasons, have to monitor and evaluate the costs and benefits of their training and development activities. The business needs to be aware if the investment of its time and money in selection and training of the employees producing any improvements. An employee needs to be given positive and structured feedback on their progress. This gives them a direction and much of confidence. This is reflected in their behaviour while dealing with customers and inspires higher customer confidence in Tesco. The tools of Tesco for monitoring and evaluation of training and development includes: Scheduled tasks Timetables Measures Checklists Employees are able to assess themselves by setting aims in Activity Plans, Recording Outcomes, Personal Development Plans and in Learning Logs. Activity plans need to have SMART objectives: Specific- This describes exactly what needs to be done Measurable- It has a target that can be measured against. Achievable- This is possible within the trainees current skills, role and experience. Realistic- It is achievable within the time and resources available. Time framed- it has a clear deadline. 360 DEGREE APPRAISALS Tesco also uses 360 degree method of performance appraisal. It involves taking feedback from all the people concerned with the employee in the organisation. In other words, all the stakeholders of the organisation who are in contact with the employee assess the persons performance and give feedback for the same. Apart from 360 degree appraisal, Tesco uses a more informal approach to development. In this approach, employees are asked to write down three that according to them they are good at and three things that they believe they could do better. The employee can make out the actions that he/she should continue to do and the bring improvement to the areas they could do better. Managers and trainees hold a weekly informal session and more formal four weekly sessions in order to track progress against their personal development plans. The feedback is carefully recorded and scored. Trainees are given a colour coded development rating: REWARDS AND BENEFITS It is important for an organisation that its people feel rewarded for the work they do. Tesco offers a wage rate that is higher than minimum salaries across all its businesses internationally. Tesco focused on its core rates and even in tough financial year, its pay competitiveness still improved in many markets. In most developing countries, staffs give priority to good basic pay and being paid fairly for overtime. In Malaysia, where there is no legal minimum wage rate, a Tesco employee receives 30% more than the Poverty Line Index for households. Tesco also provide its employees a wide range of competitive benefits in line with local labour laws and regulations. Some of these benefits are from paying at least 75% of the medical expenses, prescription drugs, dental and vision coverage after 90 days employment in the US to providing tuition subsidies in South Korea. Tesco has formulated long term reward plans for all markets so that it has clear plans on how to invest in pay and develop benefits for its employees in each country. All management teams of Tesco share in the success of its business. They are growing through bonus schemes linked to profitability. In the year 2009, Tescos employees received  £98 million worth of free shares in its Shares in Success scheme. A pay out of  £144 million was shared between fifty five thousand employees in Tescos Save as You Earn share option scheme. Tesco offers a wide range of staff discounts throughout the group. In Thailand, Tesco introduced staff discounts linked to its own Tesco clubcard in which staff received higher rewards than its customers. Tesco UK won two awards for its pension schemes. At the 2009 financial Times Pension and Investment Scheme Management Awards, Tescos schemes were awarded Defined Benefit Pension Scheme of the Year and Trustee Excellence- Large schemes. These award recognise how the funds are invested, how it communicates with its staff, how well it carries out the administration of the scheme and strength of the governance. The scheme aims at providing people with an annual income after they retire. Tesco provides benefits on ill health and death, based on their pay and their service. This benefit is one of the ways to reward loyalty and also contribute in attracting and retaining its employees. COMMUNICATION Tesco wants employees to share their views on issues that affect and business, and communicate with them regularly through face to face briefing, store and depot forums, publications, intranet and staff question times. Tescos annual staff survey, called Viewpoint, is kept confidential and anonymous. Results are fed into local plans at office, depot and store level. All of Tescos employees are given right to join a trade union and it is important for both company and employees that they exercise their rights. Tesco has a leading partnership with Usdaw in the UK, and agreements with Katz in Hungary and Solidarity in Poland. Head Office staff of Tesco gains shop floor experience through annual programme called TWIST (Tesco Week In Store Together). In the peak shopping periods such as Christmas and Easter, all head office provide support to their store colleagues through a programme called Helping Hands. Whistle-blowing Tescos whistle blowing policy and helpline number is there in all the countries. Protector Line is a confidential telephone line and e-mail address for employees to report grievances and raise ethical issues. All the calls are invested properly and serious matters are reported to the CEO. The feedback is monitored by the compliance committee. The Group Audit committee reviews the numbers of call and the quality of investigation each year. It also reviews plans to ensure that the staff is well aware of the facility. In 2009, there were around 1,700 employment related calls to the helpline. There was an increase from the last year showing that employees are gaining confidence in the service. Most of the calls are related to personnel issues, commercial issues and security and trading law. Personnel issues are resolved through grievance procedures. In the autumn of the year 2009, Tesco launched a service called Every Comment Helps, in the UK. Customers can contact the company via free text messages, e-mails, free phone calls or a card commenting on the experience in store and stating whether it was good or bad. The messages are transferred to the manager who then decides whether a stock or display issue needs to be solved, or provides feedback to the member of the staff who has been commented on. BUSINESS STRATEGY Tesco with its well-established and consistent strategy for growth tends to solidify their core UK business and expand into new markets. The objective for the strategy is to broaden the scope of its business so that it delivers strong sustainable long term growth and following the customers into large expanding markets in UK, such as telecoms, non-food and financial services, and new markets abroad, initially in Asia and Central Europe and recently in United States. Tesco adopted the strategy of diversifying its business in 1997, and this strategy been the foundation of its success in recent years. The businesses in which Tesco entered over past twelve years now are competitive, have scales and in fact they are the market leaders in some of the markets outside UK. The Tesco group has been making good progress with this strategy. It has five elements, reflecting Tescos four established areas of focus, and also Tescos long term commitments on environment and community. The momentum that this strategy has given the business has allowed the group to continue to grow despite economic downturn. The objectives of the strategy are: To be successful as an international retailer To grow business in UK. The UK is Tescos biggest market and core of its business. Tescos aim is to provide its customers a wide range of choices with excellent value. To develop its retailing services including Tesco Personal Finance, Telecoms and Tesco.com To consider community before taking any decision. CONCLUSION Tesco is a large organisation with many job opportunities, including management, graduate, school leaver and apprentice posts. Tesco needs people with right skills and behaviour in order to support its growth and development. Tesco has detailed job descriptions, person specifications and clear organisational structures. It provides friendly way of applying for jobs and a consistent approach to recruitment and selection. Hence, it can manage its changing demand for staff. An essential element of Tescos continuing growth is an efficient and effective training and development of employees to compete in this increasingly commercial world. Tesco wants its employees to be flexible and committed in order to fulfil the needs of its expanding business. Tescos expansion depends upon retaining existing customers and attracting new ones. Its structured methods of training and development of new and existing employees provides a strong base for its continuing growth.

Triangulated Polygons Essay -- Mathematics

From the beginning of time there have been many anomalies in humanity. With the advancement of techniques, tools, and knowledge, our understanding of the world aspires to clarify our curiosities. The most beneficial to factors throughout our history would include our knowledge of numbers. Numbers hold great possibilities and bring forth answers to the most complex systems of life. Our mathematics is incorporated into basic aspects of our daily lives, allowing us to unlock our potentials and give keys to uncover the hidden secrets in the universe. There are many applications to mathematics such as triangulating polygons. Triangulation is a surveying technique in which a region is divided into a series of triangular elements based on a line of known length so that accurate measurements of distances and directions may be made by the application of trigonometry. (Company, 2009) Since its discovery, triangulation has lent the world many beneficial advantages. Polygons exist as multi-sided shapes. These shapes can be subdivided into many non-overlapping triangles. These triangles connect corners to corners, creating diagonals that section it off. These sections are called convex hulls. The many uses of algorithms allow anyone to calculate these triangular hulls. The mathematics behind triangulating polygons was originated in Alexandria by the man, Euclides. Euclides was a Greek mathematician who was highly revered as the â€Å"Father of Geometry.† Euclides possessed a mysterious personal life, because his life was not documented and often confused with others. He taught many children mathematics during the reign of Ptolemy. His father and grandfather were thought to be Greek, but this is not certain considering the confusion between him... ...'s Formula. Retrieved from ENRICH: http://nrich.maths.org/1384 Company, H. M. (2009). Triangulation. Retrieved from TheFreeDictionary by Farlex: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/triangulation csunplugged. (2010, October 30). Santa's Dirty Socks (Divide and Conquer Algorithms). Retrieved from Youtube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wVPCT1VjySA lecture, P. T. (1993). Triangulations and Arrangements. McGill University. Math Open Reference. (2009). Euclid. Retrieved from Math Open Reference: http://www.mathopenref.com/euclid.html Suksak, P. S. (2010, November 30). Catalan Numbers Presentation 2. Retrieved from Slide Share: http://www.slideshare.net/PaiSukanyaSuksak/catalan-number-presentation2 Teter, M. (2000, March 15). Sonar a way of seeing sound. Retrieved from Cornell Center for Material Research: http://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/education/ask/index.html?quid=260 Triangulated Polygons Essay -- Mathematics From the beginning of time there have been many anomalies in humanity. With the advancement of techniques, tools, and knowledge, our understanding of the world aspires to clarify our curiosities. The most beneficial to factors throughout our history would include our knowledge of numbers. Numbers hold great possibilities and bring forth answers to the most complex systems of life. Our mathematics is incorporated into basic aspects of our daily lives, allowing us to unlock our potentials and give keys to uncover the hidden secrets in the universe. There are many applications to mathematics such as triangulating polygons. Triangulation is a surveying technique in which a region is divided into a series of triangular elements based on a line of known length so that accurate measurements of distances and directions may be made by the application of trigonometry. (Company, 2009) Since its discovery, triangulation has lent the world many beneficial advantages. Polygons exist as multi-sided shapes. These shapes can be subdivided into many non-overlapping triangles. These triangles connect corners to corners, creating diagonals that section it off. These sections are called convex hulls. The many uses of algorithms allow anyone to calculate these triangular hulls. The mathematics behind triangulating polygons was originated in Alexandria by the man, Euclides. Euclides was a Greek mathematician who was highly revered as the â€Å"Father of Geometry.† Euclides possessed a mysterious personal life, because his life was not documented and often confused with others. He taught many children mathematics during the reign of Ptolemy. His father and grandfather were thought to be Greek, but this is not certain considering the confusion between him... ...'s Formula. Retrieved from ENRICH: http://nrich.maths.org/1384 Company, H. M. (2009). Triangulation. Retrieved from TheFreeDictionary by Farlex: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/triangulation csunplugged. (2010, October 30). Santa's Dirty Socks (Divide and Conquer Algorithms). Retrieved from Youtube: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wVPCT1VjySA lecture, P. T. (1993). Triangulations and Arrangements. McGill University. Math Open Reference. (2009). Euclid. Retrieved from Math Open Reference: http://www.mathopenref.com/euclid.html Suksak, P. S. (2010, November 30). Catalan Numbers Presentation 2. Retrieved from Slide Share: http://www.slideshare.net/PaiSukanyaSuksak/catalan-number-presentation2 Teter, M. (2000, March 15). Sonar a way of seeing sound. Retrieved from Cornell Center for Material Research: http://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/education/ask/index.html?quid=260

Causes of the American Civil War Essay -- American History USA Essays

Causes of the American Civil War The American Civil War was a military conflict between the United States of America (the Union), and 11 secessionist Southern states, organized as the Confederate States of America (the Confederacy). It was the culmination of four decades of intense sectional conflict and it reflected deep-seated economic, social, and political differences between the North and the South. One of the major causes of the Civil War was the seemingly endless political disputes over slavery in the Mexican Cession and Louisiana Purchase territories. It was imperative that the Democratic and Whig political leaders maintain harmony between their Southern and Northern supporters, thus, the platforms of both during presidential elections like that of 1848 tried to avoid that particular slavery question. But the extension of slavery into the new territories was one of the largest issues of the time, and with growing opposition from the North, evasion of it became increasingly difficult. Another significant cause of the war was the growth of different responses to antislavery practices such as the Underground Railroad and reactions to runaway slaves and the Fugitive Slave laws that spurred from all sections of the country. Finally, there was the economic distress factor, of both foreign and domestic roots, that included everything from tariffs to the financial crash of 1857. These in turn caused sectional disputes over the use of the federal government’s public lands.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In early 1848, when gold was discovered in California, â€Å"a horde of adventurers poured into the valleys.'; (Bailey, 400). â€Å"Free-soilers'; and â€Å"slaveryites'; argued over the proposed issue of slavery in the territories, and thus, whether the terrain itself was suitable for a slave economy. In Congress on August 8, 1846, Pennsylvania Representative David Wilmot moved an amendment: â€Å"that, as an express and fundamental condition of the acquisition of any territory from the Republic of Mexico†¦neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory,'; (CG, 1217) releasing the â€Å"pent-up ire'; of northern Democrats, many of whom cared less about the slavery issue itself than about their own power within the party. But the northern Whigs, who had a more consistent antislavery ‘record’, volunteered support for the proviso. â€Å"This bipartisan northern coa... ...d. Besides these, there were secondary reasons, as well, numerous and piled-up from decades of conflicting interests. All of these contributed in producing, measured in physical devastation and human lives, the costliest war in the experience of the American people. Bibliography "American Civil War" Wikipedia 2014 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War Bailey, Thomas A., and David M. Kennedy. The American Pageant. Lexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath and Company, 1994. Rozwenc, Edwin. The Causes of the Civil War. Lexington, Massachuesetts: D.C. Heath and Company, 1972. Congressional Globe, 29 Congress, 1 Sess. Friedheim, William, and Ronald Jackson. Freedom’s Unfinished Revolution. New York: American Social History Productions, 1996. Mcpherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. Nevins, Allan. The Emergence of Lincoln: Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1950. Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1947.

Can We Have Free Trade and Reduce Pollution of the Environment? Essay

Can We Have Free Trade and Protect the Environment?    Endorsing free trade is easy. Ask an Economics professor why free trade is good and you will surely   be shown a graph with three or more intersecting lines that show a higher rate of output for nations that participate in free trade than nations that do not. Opposing free trade, at least on economic grounds, is a bit harder-unless you are an environmentalist.    The economic advantages of free trade were recently brought to light at the meeting of North and South American nations in Quebec City last month to discuss the proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA). The proposed agreement would reduce tariff barriers on everything from textiles to foreign direct investment between virtually all nations of the Americas. In essence, FTAA is an expansion of NAFTA-a really, really big expansion.    As with NAFTA, the obvious consequence of the FTAA is greater access to U.S. and foreign markets (which is good for growth), increased incentives for foreign direct investment (which is good for growth), and higher capital availability for developing nations. Unfortunately, growth is not the only story. This is partly why the Quebec summit garnered tens of thousands of protestors outside a meeting hall with only 34 delegates.    Economists are notorious for leaving out environmental costs when evaluating the benefits of free trade. The FTAA appears to be no exception. Unfortunately, the FTAA resembles NAFTA in a number of aspects that could devastate environmental protection laws in developing countries, which are not only important for the environment, but for growth as well.    NAFTA, like ot... ...on policy and investment should be sensitive to the inclusion of competitiveness safeguards for states with existing environmental regulations, and should ensure the promotion of sustainable development measures among all participants. Finally, a dispute settlement mechanism that recognizes the right of participating states to adopt new and more stringent environmental protections that apply to domestic as well as foreign producers should be established.    Economists have long recognized the benefits of free trade and this author is no exception. A substantially revised FTAA agreement that corrects the environmental failures of NAFTA will not only produce an economically superior future for the western hemisphere, but one that includes clean air, clean water, and an overall higher standard of living for the western hemisphere.